Germination of Seeds: Research on Salinity

Germination of Seeds: Research on Salinity 1.1. Rationale The purpose of this investigation is to develop a more advanced understanding of the germination of seeds. The investigation is worthwhile as it will explain such conditions needed for seeds to maximise germination to allow efficient plant development. This information could help the scientific community know when saline reaches dangerous levels for radish seeds. 1.2. Background Information The aim of this experiment is to find out how the salinity of water affects the optimum germination of seeds. A seed is a small embryonic plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat, usually with some stored food (Seed, 2016). There are mainly two types of seeds: monocots and dicots. The cotyledon in monocots are just thin leaves that usually do not emerge above ground. Dicot cotyledons contain their seeds endosperm, so they are thicker and fuller, which they use to produce more food in photosynthetic metabolism (Burchill, 2017). In dicots, the primary root first grows upward to the surface and then dives again, while the primary root in monocots grows downward. For germination to occur, the seed requires an adequate environmental temperature, light exposure and a regular intake of water (Burchill, 2017). Germination starts when the seed starts to take up water by osmosis, which is the movement of water through a permeable membrane from higher water concentration to a lower water concentration (BBC Standard Grade Bitesize Biology Cells and diffusion : Revision, Page 4, 2014).   Ã‚   The micropyle, an opening in the testa, or seed coat, allows water to move into the seed causing it to swell and thus rupture the seed coat to allow the embryo plant to emerge (Gillam, 2014). Permeability of the testa is a major factor controlling the rate of water uptake. As seeds imbibe- absorb- water, they expand and enzymes and food supplies become hydrated. Hydrated enzymes become active and the seed increase its metabolic activities to produce energy for the growth process. In addition, the water causes turgor pressure to increase in the cells and they can enlarge. There are three stages to seed germination (Germination of Seeds: Stages Factors involved, 2017). The imbibition stage, where water absorption results in rupture of seed coat. The latent stage is where the imbibition of the seed coat results in the emergence of the radicle and the plumule; and is also where the cotyledons get unfolded (Process of Seed Germination | Tutorvista.com, 2017). Finally, the exponential growth stage is where the cotyledons are expanded which are the true leaves. Factors such as oxygen, light, temperature, humidity and soil chemistry can all affect the germination of seeds (M. Krempels, 2017). The factor that will be studied, will be water salinity. Therefore, the independent variable in this investigation will be the salinity concentration (%) as the growth will be recorded based on different concentration, and the dependent variable will be the amount of germination (cm). 1.3. Hypothesis If the concentration of salinity in water (%) is increased, then the less likely/ more time it will take for the seed to germinate. 2.0. Procedure/ Method 4 radish seeds were each placed into a cotton ball which were in 12 petri dishes. On the first day, 15 mL of distilled water was measured and poured in 3 petri dishes, while 1%, 5% and 10% sodium chloride solution was measured and poured each into the remaining petri dishes. However, on the other 4 days, 5 mL of each solution was measured and emptied into the corresponding petri dishes. A photo was taken each day for 5 days and observations were recorded. 3.1. Presentation of Data Percentage of Radish Seeds that Germinated with Varying Solute Percentages Radish seeds that germinated (%) Concentration of NaCl (%) Day 0 Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 0 0 50 66.67 66.67 66.67 1 0 8.33 16.67 16.67 25 5 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 3.2. Interpretation of Data In graph 1, the pattern of the 0% NaCl trend line shows an increase in the percentage of seeds germinating in the first two days, but then slowed down and levelled off until day 4. Similarly, the trendline of 1% NaCl saw an increase in the percentage of seeds germinating until day 2 where it levelled off, however after day 3 a steady increase in the amount of seeds germinating can be seen. In graph 2, the maximum amount of seeds that germinated, 66.67%, is at the optimum salinity for germination to occur in seeds, 0%. As the salinity increased from this optimum concentration, the percentage of seeds that germinated decreases. This can be seen at 1% NaCl because the percentage of seeds that germinated was 25%, and when the concentration was 5% and 10% as the amount of germinated seeds was only 0%. The seeds germinated the most when the salinity of the water was 0% because the average rate of germination in the first two days was 33.34%/day and the maximum percentage that germinated was 66.67%. As compared to: 1% NaCl, where the average rate of germination was 8.34%/day and the maximum amount of seeds that germinated was just 25%; and 5%/ 10% NaCl, where no germination took place. In conclusion, both graphs show that around 0% is the optimum concentration for radish seeds to germinate. In addition, any changes above this concentration decrease the rate of germination. 4.1. Explanation of Results If the concentration of salinity in water (%) is increased, then the less likely/ more time it will take for the seed to germinate. It was predicted that the optimum percentage of NaCl would be 0% and there would be a steady decrease as the salinity increased. When the salinity of the water increases from 0%, the rate of germination decreased which is shown in the results as at 0% NaCl 66.67% of seeds had germinated after 4 days, at 1% NaCl 25% of seeds had germinated, and at 5% and 10% NaCl, 0% of seeds germinated. Optimal germination for most seeds has been reported in non-saline conditions (AoB Plants, 2014). The rate of imbibition decreases with increasing the concentration of a solution in the medium (Monga, 2014). Imbibition is important in seed germination as it involves the uptake of water by the dry seed, initially by osmosis. The water hydrates and activates special proteins, called enzymes, that increase its metabolic activities producing energy that begin the process of seed growth such as starch conversion into sugar (Robb, 2017). In addition, the water causes turgor pressure to increase in the cells so they can enlarge and move the radicle root down and the cotyledons up (Khon, 2017). Turgor pressure is the force of water pushing the plasma membrane against the cell wall of a plant cell (eHowEducation, 2014). Although Imbibition uses aspects from the process of osmosis, imbibition and osmosis are not the same. The uptake of absorption of water by the solid substance without forming solution is called imbibition. Whereas, the movement of water molecules through a semipermeable m embrane from the region of higher water concentration to the region of lesser water concentration is called osmosis (Deena T Kochunni, 2017). In the data, as the concentration increased from 0%, the rate of reaction decreased. The order of concentrations at which the rate of germination will increase from slowest to fastest is 10% NaCl, 5% NaCl, 1% NaCl and 0% NaCl. Therefore, the predicted outcome that the optimum salinity would be 0% was correct as this is what the experiment indicates, which was 0%. This is because seeds need a lower concentration of salinity in their environment, i.e. the soil, so that more water can flow into seed to get imbibed. A University of California study undertaken by Stephan Grattan, plant-water relations specialist, determined that radishes do not tolerate much salt in irrigation water (Grattan, 2002). As radish seeds are sensitive to root disturbances, the salinity of the water affected the rate of germination (How to Grow Radishes 101 gardenswag, 2011). This would suggest why 25% of seeds germinated after five days in an environment containing 1% NaCl, but 0% of seeds germinating in 5% Na Cl and 10% NaCl. When a seeds environment is of the optimal concentration of NaCl, the rate of germination is at its highest and so takes a shorter amount of time. Therefore, at this optimum, the concentration gradient of water is highest which means that maximum imbibition takes place, causing the cells to swell and activate the enzymes which help break down the seed coating. This can be seen at point B on graph 2 where the radish seeds are at the optimum concentration of 0% NaCl and a maximum of 66.67% of seeds germinated. Concentrations above the optimum affect the osmotic process in seeds. Seed imbibition rate and germination percentage decrease as the surrounding water concentration decreases. This is because, increasing the salinity decreases the concentration of water in the external environment of the seed, making the water in the seed cells travel out into the external environment, plasmolysing the cells. When a plant cell becomes plasmolysed, the internal cellular membrane shrivels up as the volume of water in the cytoplasm decreases, which means that there is less turgor pressure (The Effects of Osmosis, 2017). Therefore, it wont germinate. This is also apparent at point B on graph 2, as there is a decrease in the percentage of germinating seeds at salinity percentages above 0%. At 0% NaCl, it is evident that the most seeds, 66.67%, had germinated by the end of day 4. This was where the concentration of water outside the seed was at its highest resulting in the most amount of water travelling into the seed at a time. In other words, the seed was in a hypotonic environment. Thus, the seeds could germinate quicker as more enzymes could become active and carry out the processes important to break the walls of the seeds. This is evident in Graph 1, as at 0% NaCl 50% of the seeds had started to germinate, which is the highest of any salinity percentage on day one. The maximum percentage of seeds germinating was 66.67%. Germination could also be seen at 1% NaCl, with 25% of the seeds germinating by the end of day four. This occurred as the water concentration on the outside was the same as the water concentration on the inside of the seed cells. Therefore, the seed was in an isotonic solution. Due to this, water was still able to come into the seed cells, however, there was less turgor pressure as the seeds cells were flaccid. Germination was still able to occur as some enzymes could become stimulated to aid in breaking the seed coating. This is apparent on graph 1 as on day 3 16.67% of the seeds had germinated, but at the end of day 4, 25% of the radish seeds germinated, suggesting that germination was still taking place in the other 75% of seeds. However, no obvious germination could be seen in 5% NaCl or 10% NaCl, even after the fourth day. The reason for this, is that the percentage of salinity was too much in the external environment, which means that the concentration of water in the external environment was lower than the water concentration inside the seeds cells- in a hypertonic environment. Consequently, more water was going out of the seeds cells than water was coming out, therefore the cells plasmolysed. The lack of water inside the cells could not activate enough enzymes to continue the process of germination. This is clear on graph 1 as 0% of seeds germinated throughout the 4 days. Per the results, it can be verified that as the salinity increased from 0%, the imbibition of the seed decreased causing the rate of germination to decrease. This increase in salinity caused the concentration of water outside the seed to increase, causing a hypertonic solution, which consequently made more water travel out of the cells than into, causing the cells to plasmolyse. Thus, decreasing the rate of germination. 4.2. Evaluation of Experiment To ensure that an experiment is a fair test, only one factor can be changed at a time while keeping all other conditions the same (Doing a Fair Test: Variables for Beginners, 2016). This experiment had several control variables that had to be kept constant, variables such as: the temperature of room; the type of seed; the amount of solution used; time of day watered; vessel that carries the seed; how seeds are placed; amount of seeds placed in each petri-dish; and the light reaching plants. The external environment was kept constant as the experiment was conducted indoors with the air conditioner set to 22 °C and the seeds were placed in the same place on a window sill. Also, the type of seed was kept the same as radish seeds were used. In addition, vessel that carried the seeds, amount of seeds in each petri dish and how seeds were placed were all kept constant as four seeds were placed in four cotton balls in each petri dish. However, the amount of solution was not kept constant each day, as 15mL was used to water the seeds on day 1, but on the second and third days 5mL was used, and no watering took place on days 4 and 5. To improve this, the original 15mL of water should be used to water the seeds every day. Even though the environment was kept constant, to maximise seed germination, the investigation needed to take place inside of a greenhouse. In addition, the time of day was not kept constant, to ensure that the watering was at the same time every day, the radishes needed to be watered at around 5 oclock every morning so that the seeds could maximise sunlight throughout the rest of the day. Validity encompasses the entire experimental concept and establishes whether the results obtained meet all of the requirements of the scientific research method (Shuttleworth, 2008). Possible errors in the results include: human error in reading measurements; not watering the seeds evenly; human error in remembering to water the seeds; and not using the same amount of cotton wool. The main reasons for this was the lack of time during a school day. In addition, there was no real way to measure out each cotton wool ball. Therefore, the results are valid for this experiment, but are not reliable to use for further research into radish seeds. The aim of this experiment was to find out how the salinity of water affects the optimum germination in radish seeds. The predicted outcome that the optimum temperature would be 0% was correct as this is what the experiment indicates. Per the results, it can be verified that as the concentration of salinity increased from 0%, the water moving into the seed decreased causing the rate of germination to also decrease eventually causing 0% of seeds to germinate in 4 days, at which the water moving into the seed was less than the amount of water moving out of the seed. Any increase in salinity concentration decreased the number of enzymes being activated to start breaking the seed coating due to the lack of water inside the seeds cells, causing the seeds to not germinate by the end of day 4. Theory Sources AoB Plants. (2014) (6th ed.). BBC Standard Grade Bitesize Biology Cells and diffusion : Revision, Page 4. (2014). Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 6 February 2017, from http://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/standard/biology/investigating_cells/cells_and_diffusion/revision/4/ Burchill, S. (2017). The Open Door Web Site : Energy and Activity : How Plants Survive Winter : Seeds and the Conditions Needed for Seed germination. Saburchill.com. Retrieved 28 January 2017, from http://www.saburchill.com/ans02/chapters/chap036.html Deena T Kochunni, J. (2017). Difference between Osmosis and Imbibition.Majordifferences.com. Retrieved 25 February 2017, from http://www.majordifferences.com/2013/12/difference-between-osmosis-and.html#.WLGCpPk2vIU eHowEducation,. (2014). What Is Turgor Pressure in Biology? : Biology DNA. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ckKRfhD5sE0 Doing a Fair Test: Variables for Beginners. (2016). Science Buddies. Retrieved 13 May 2016, from http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project_experiment_fair_test.shtml Germination of Seeds: Stages Factors involved. (2017). Education Science Tips. Retrieved 6 February 2017, from http://www.rajaha.com/germination-seeds/ Gillam, P. (2014). osmosis | PMG Biology. Pmgbiology.com. Retrieved 6 February 2017, from https://pmgbiology.com/tag/osmosis/ M. Krempels, D. (2017). GR 1 Laboratory: Environment and Development: The Effects of Environment on Seed Germination. Laboratory Exercise, Miami. Grattan, S. (2002). Irrigation Water Salinity and Crop Production (1st ed.). Oakland: ANR Publication. Retrieved from http://anrcatalog.ucanr.edu/pdf/8066.pdf How to Grow Radishes 101 gardenswag. (2011). Gardenswag.com. Retrieved 27 January 2017, from http://www.gardenswag.com/2011/12/how-to-grow-radishes-101/ Khon, C. (2017). Seed Germination [10]. Retrieved from http://www.shsu.edu/academics/agricultural-sciences-and-engineering-technology/ Monga, S. (2014) Imbibition [4]. Retrieved from https://www.slideshare.net/sheelumonga/imbibition-is-the-phenomenon-of-adsorption-of-water Process of Seed Germination | Tutorvista.com. (2017). Tutorvista.com. Retrieved 6 February 2017, from http://www.tutorvista.com/content/biology/biology-iv/plant-growth-movements/seed-germination-process.php Robb, A. (2017). What is Seed Germination? Definition, Process, Steps Factors Video Lesson Transcript | Study.com. Study.com. Retrieved 24 February 2017, from http://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-seed-germination-definition-process-steps-factors.htmlp Seed. (2016). ScienceDaily. Retrieved 19 February 2017, from https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/seed.htm Shuttleworth, M. (2008). Validity and Reliability How to Know if the Research is Correct?.Explorable.com. Retrieved 13 May 2016, from https://explorable.com/validity-and-reliability The Effects of Osmosis. (2017). Etomica.org. Retrieved 6 February 2017, from http://www.etomica.org/app/modules/sites/Osmosis_old/Background1.html Diagram Sources Biology 1903,. (2017). Eudicot germination.. Retrieved from http://bio1903.nicerweb.com/Locked/media/ch38/38_10SeedGermination-dicot.jpg EdExcel,. (2014). There is an opening in the testa called the micropyle that allows water to move into the seed causing it to swell and thus rupture the seed coat to allow the embryo plant to emerge.. Retrieved from https://pmgbiology.files.wordpress.com/2014/06/image024.gif imgarcade.com,. (2017). osmosis 1. Retrieved from https://image.slidesharecdn.com/osmosisamazingss-111004150133-phpapp01/95/osmosis-1-8-728.jpg Pearson Education Inc.,. (2017). Isotonic, Hypotonic, and Hypertonic Solutions. Retrieved from http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/biocoach/biomembrane1/images/Tonic2.gif University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources Gorgan,. (2012). Effect of NaCl concentration on germination of Velvetleaf (A) and Bamyardgrass (B). Retrieved from http://www.scielo.br/img/revistas/pd/v28n3/02f03.gif

Calorimetry Essay

The purpose of this experiment was to find the specific heat formation of magnesium oxide by combining the two heat reactants using Hess’s Law. The purpose was also to measure the delta T which was the final temperature minus the initial temperature of the solution. The claim made was, based on the expected heat formation value found in magnesium metal and hydrochloric acid, the experimental enthalpy was much closer to the expected value in comparison the magnesium oxide and hydrochloric acid. The equations used in this experiment were 1. MG(s)+2HCl(aq)= MgCl2(aq)+ H2(g) 2. MgO(s)+2HCl(aq)=MgCl(aq)+H2O(l) 3. H2(g) +1/2O2(g)=H2O(l). We combined the listed equations we cancelled certain values using Hess’s Law to form magnesium oxide, Mg(s)+1/2O2(aq)=MgO(s). The experimental heat formation of magnesium oxide is -467.684 kJ/mol. Based on the results found, using the correlation coefficient (R2) and the maximum value of temperature final (which was found to be 70.934) we found the correlation between the trend lines (expected) to the experimental. Based on the data found this information supported our claim. There may have been several errors in the experiment one error may have been the lack of recording on time, meaning the stop watch was started later in the reaction. Another reason for error was the lack of taking the first trials measurement forcing us to estimate a mass which through off the results of the experiment in a whole. The final reason for error was not all of the magnesium oxide that was measured was experimented. These error sources listed above, may cause numerous problems for example the estimated mass for the first trial cause the results to skew, giving us a large error percentage of -21% if this trial was taken out the error percentage would be much lower. The stop watch did not start at the same time of the experiment which may cause an increase in the error percentage as well; due to this fault the temperature final would be much higher. The last error was the loss of product (magnesium oxide); this interfered with the experiment for the reason that based on what was expected (-601.24 kJ/mol) and what was experimented -141.990 kJ/mol was a much lower value.

Optimism and Health Benefits Essay

â€Å"Even the darkest night will end and the sun will rise.† This quote from Victor Hugo is a perfect example of optimism. When someone is optimistic, they have a disposition or tendency to look on the more favorable side of events or conditions and to expect the most favorable outcome. Optimism is simply a mental game. The brain can interpret situations or events as being optimized; meaning that some factors may not be fully comprehendible, yet having confidence that the present moment is in an optimist state. This understanding, although criticized by counter views such as pessimism, realism, and idealism, leads to a state of mind that believes everything is as it should be. With optimism, someone contains hopefulness and confidence about the future or the successful outcome of something. Not only does optimism give someone confidence, it also provides many health benefits and a sense of purpose in life. â€Å"Is your glass half empty, or half full?† This saying is a common idiom that illustrates optimism versus pessimism; an optimist is said to see the glass half full, and a pessimist sees the glass as half empty. Winston Churchill provides another unique understanding of this idea: â€Å"The optimist sees opportunity in every danger; the pessimist sees danger in every opportunity,† The defining characteristic of pessimists is that they tend to believe bad events will last a long time, will undermine everything they do, and are their own fault. The optimists, who are confronted with the same problems of the world, think about misfortune in the opposite way. They tend to believe defeat is just a temporary setback. Provoked by a bad situation, they perceive is as a challenge to try harder. If the thoughts that run through one’s head are mostly negative, their outlook on life is more likely to be pessimistic. There is nothing better in life than having a peace of mind that no matter what the troubles are that life may bring, everything will be okay and that life has so much to offer. Unfortunately this peace of mind does not happen over-night, it takes years of trials and experience s to be able to see the bright side of any given situation. People are not automatically born with optimism; they have to experience negative circumstances in order to find the strength to be optimistic in general. Without hardships, optimism would not grow. Optimism often starts with self-talk. These endless streams of unspoken thoughts can either be positive, or negative. Optimism does not mean that one keeps their head in the sand and ignore life’s less unpleasant situations, it just means that the approach to the unpleasantness is in a more positive and productive way. With this approach to any given situation, stress can be reduced. Often time’s people upset themselves over something minute, causing a lack of sleep, unhealthy eating habits, hostile mood, etc. What they do not know is that with a simple thought of, â€Å"I can do this,† or â€Å"It will be okay,† their whole stream of thoughts eventually start following that positive pattern, changing their whole mood, reducing stress, and increasing their chances of overcoming obstacles. Not only does an optimistic view reduce stress, it also decreases the risks of cardiovascular disease, hypertension, and infections. Optimism itself, not just its association with happiness, lowers anxiety, thus causing less hostility, and has the potential to lower the risk of a stroke. U.S. researchers followed more than 97,000 women for about eight years. Measures of optimism and cynical hostility were strongly associated with these outcomes: Optimists had a lower incidence of heart disease and total mortality. Conversely, cynical hostility, which is a lack of confidence and increased bitterness, was associated with both higher overall mortality and cancer-related effects. Along with positive health benefits, optimism also gives someone a sense of purpose. American psychologist, Salvatore Maddi, co-author of Resilience at Work: How to Succeed No Matter What Life Throws at You, extensively studied what makes executives tough in the face of work-related stress. He found that the healthiest of executives shared three characteristics: a feeling of commitment, a sense of control in their lives, and an acceptance of life’s stressful moments as challenges rather than threats. This research confirms that having a sense of commitment to a purpose does not merely give someone meaning; it makes them more resistant to the impact of stressful living. This view on optimism can increase one’s chances of succeeding their goals or dreams, and not allowing negative situations to hinder their attitude. With hopefulness that their goals will be achieved, their motivation is amplified as well. Optimism is a way of life that is not learned automatically, it takes time and effort to completely change one’s mindset. This mindset has many positive effects. A firm confidence in one’s self develops, and they have self-assurance that no matter what life throws at them, it is completely possible to overcome those obstacles. Optimists tend to believe that defeat is not their fault; circumstances, bad luck, or other people bring it about. Such people are unfazed by defeat. Optimism not only gives one confidence, but also provides a countless number of health benefits. With an optimistic attitude, depression can be reversed. Although it takes time to get out of a slump, just the start of positive self-talk can remove one out of despair. Positive self-talk also reduces stress and the chance of cardiovascular disease, hypertension, and strokes. A sense of purpose also develops with someone who acquires an optimistic mentality. A sense of purpose does not only give someone meaning, it helps them to overcome the stresses that life brings. Optimism merely starts with a simple â€Å"I will be okay.† It takes small steps, but it is completely possible for one to change their outlook on life and not let circumstances defeat one’s life.

President Bush on Social Security Reform essays

President Bush on Social Security Reform essays The topic of social security is one that seems to arise again and again during presidential elections, and is often one of the most debated subjects of a presidents administration. Since his initial victory over then Vice President Al Gore in 2000, George Bush has continually worked on reforming the United States current system of social security. Many politicians consider social security to be the so called third-rail of American Politics, because like the third rail of a train, it will shock you if you touch it. However, the fault that lies within this theory is that by not touching it, we will not be able to fix it, and as George Bush said in an August 2000 speech: I will touch the third rail so I can fix it. Social security was originally implemented by Franklin Roosevelt almost 70 years ago, and has been in continual, un-interfered service since then. However, with the recession in 2001, the huge U.S. deficit, the baby-boomer generation getting ready to retire in about seven years, and the war on terrorism, many people, especially the younger working population, are beginning to get worried about whether or not social security will be around for them. George Bushs solution, one that has stirred up much controversy, is to allow younger workers to invest a portion of their paychecks into private savings account, where they would get a higher rate of return as opposed to the current social security trust funds. By allowing the rates of returns to be compounding at a higher rate, it would ensure that the entire social security system would stay intact for generations to come. He says that a 2% return a year is not good enough, and by allowing the United States to privatize their money, it could potentially yield rates of return as high as 6%. He also promised that this system would be strictly voluntary, and the matter of trusting the government with ones retirement, or themselves woul...

Congressional Oversight and the U.S. Government

Congressional Oversight and the U.S. Government Congressional oversight refers to the power of the United States Congress to monitor and, if necessary, change the actions of the executive branch, including the many federal agencies. The primary goals of congressional oversight are to prevent waste, fraud, and abuse, and to protect civil liberties and individual rights by ensuring that the executive branch complies with the laws and the Constitution. Derived from its â€Å"implied† powers in the U.S. Constitution, public laws, and House and Senate rules, congressional oversight is one of the key elements of the American system of checks and balances of power.   Key Takeaways: Congressional Oversight Congressional oversight refers to the power of the U.S. Congress to monitor and change, if necessary, the actions of the executive branch, including the many federal agencies.The main goals of congressional oversight are preventing waste, fraud, and abuse, and protecting rights and civil liberties.Congressional oversight is one of the â€Å"implied† powers granted to Congress by the â€Å"necessary and proper† clause of the Constitution.In empowering the legislative branch of government to oversee the executive branch, congressional oversight forms a key element of the system of checks and balances of power. The scope of Congress’ powers of oversight extends to virtually all programs, activities, regulations, and polices implemented by the presidential cabinet departments, independent executive agencies, regulatory boards and commissions, and the President of the United States. Should Congress find evidence that an agency has incorrectly applied or exceeded its powers, Congress can pass a law overruling the action or narrowing the agency’s regulatory authority. Congress can also limit an agency’s power by reducing its funding in the annual federal budget process.   Oversight Definition Dictionaries define â€Å"oversight† as â€Å"watchful and responsible care.† In the context of congressional oversight, this â€Å"watchful and responsible care† is applied through a wide variety of congressional activities, including detailed investigations of program spending appropriations and re-authorizations requests. Oversight may be conducted by standing and select congressional committees, and through reviews and studies conducted by congressional support agencies and staff.   In Congress, oversight comes in many forms including: Hearings and investigations conducted by the standing or special congressional committees;Consulting with or getting reports directly from the president;Giving its advice and consent for certain high-level presidential nominations and for treaties;Impeachment proceedings conducted in the House and tried in the Senate;House and Senate proceedings under the 25th Amendment should the president become disabled, or the office of the vice president becomes vacant;Senators and Representatives serving on presidentially-appointed commissions; andSpecial studies conducted by congressional committees and support agencies such as the Congressional Budget Office, the General Accountability Office, the Office of Technology Assessment, and the Congressional Research Service. Powers of Congress: When ‘Necessary and Proper’ While the Constitution does not formally grant Congress the authority to oversee the actions of the executive branch, oversight is clearly implied in the many enumerated powers of Congress. The power of congressional oversight is further reinforced by the â€Å"necessary and proper† clause (Article I, Section 8, Clause 18) of the Constitution, which grants Congress the power, â€Å"To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof.† The necessary and proper clause further implies that Congress has the power to investigate the actions of the executive branch. It would be impossible for Congress to apply its oversight powers without knowing whether federal programs are being administered properly and within their budgets and whether executive branch officials are obeying the law and complying with the legislative intent of the laws.   The U.S. Supreme Court has confirmed the investigative powers of Congress, subject to constitutional safeguards for civil liberties. In the 1927 case of McGrain v. Daugherty, the Court specifically found that, in investigating actions taken by the Department of Justice, Congress had constitutionally considered a subject â€Å"on which legislation could be had or would be materially aided by the information which the investigation was calculated to elicit.† Statutory Mandated for Congressional Oversight Along with the necessary and proper clause of the Constitution, several important laws provide broad mandates for the power of congressional oversight. For example, the Government Performance and Results Act of 1993 requires the executive agencies to consult Congress when developing their strategic plans and report on their plans, goals, and results at least annually to the Government Accountability Office (GAO).   Perhaps the most impactful, the Inspectors General Act of 1978 created within each executive branch agency an independent watchdog Office of Inspector General (OIG) assigned to investigate and report on problems of waste, fraud, and abuse to Congress. The Reports Consolidation Act of 2000 requires the OIGs to identify and report the most serious management and performance problems within the agencies they monitor.   Indeed, one of the first laws passed by the First Congress in 1789 established the Treasury Department and required the Secretary and the Treasurer to report directly to Congress on public expenditures and all accounts. Congressional Oversight Committees Today, as in the earliest days of the Republic, Congress exercises its power of oversight largely through its congressional committee system. The rules of both the House and Senate allow their committees and subcommittees to practice â€Å"special oversight† or â€Å"comprehensive policy oversight,† on issues relating to legislation under their jurisdiction. At the highest level, the House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform and the Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs, have oversight jurisdiction over virtually every area of the federal government.   In addition to these and other standing committees, Congress has the power to appoint temporary â€Å"select† oversight committees to investigate major problems or scandals within the executive branch. Examples of inquiries conducted by select committees include the Watergate scandal in 1973-1974; Iran-Contra affair in 1987; and the suspected acquisition of U.S. nuclear weapons by China in 1999.  Ã‚   Famous Examples of Congressional Oversight Over the years, government officials have been exposed and ousted, major policies have been changed, and the degree of statutory control over the executive branch has been increased as a result of Congress’ oversight powers. In 1949, a select Senate subcommittee discovered corruption within the administration of President Harry S. Truman. As a result, several agencies were reorganized and a special White House commission was appointed to investigate evidence of corruption in all areas of government.In the late 1960s, televised hearings of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee on the so-called Pentagon Papers solidified public opposition to continued U.S. participation in the Vietnam War, hastening the end of the conflict.Less than a year after details of the 1973 Watergate scandal were exposed, the House Judiciary Committees impeachment proceedings against President Richard Nixon resulted in his resignation from office.  More recently, during 1996 and 1997, the Senate Finance Committee investigated and confirmed whistleblower reports from Internal Revenue Service (IRS) tax collection agents that they had been pressured by their supervisors to harass citizens who claimed they had been wrongly accused o f owing unpaid taxes. As a result, Congress, in 1998, passed legislation to reform the IRS by creating a new independent oversight board within the agency, extending the rights and protections of taxpayers, and shifting the burden of proof in tax disputes from taxpayers to the IRS. In these and countless other cases, the power of congressional oversight has been essential in monitoring and checking the powers of the executive branch and helping improve the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of federal government operations in general. Sources Halchin LE (2012). â€Å"Congressional Oversight.† CRS report to Congressâ€Å"Congressional Oversight of the Executive.† Joint Committee on the Organization of Congress. US House of Representativesâ€Å"McGrain v. Daugherty.† Oyez.org

Kathryn Bigelow Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Kathryn Bigelow - Movie Review Example The first film, titled â€Å"The Loveless†, was directed in 1982 proved to be a debutorial success few others have achieved in their careers. Further along her career, she continued to produce box office hits. She directed and produced blockbusters including ‘Blue Steel’, of 1989, ‘Hurt Locker’ 2008, and her most recent movie, which she produced and directed, ‘Zero Dark Thirty†, 2012. All three movies will be discussed within this paper. Sean Redmond and Deborah Jermyn in the book â€Å"The Cinema of Kathryn Bigelow Hollywood Transgressor† have mentioned that Kathryn Bigelow is an auteur, meaning she has a distinct style, which reflects in her movies. Despite the fact that some critics claim that Bigelow does not have a distinct style owing to the fact that she has produced and directed a wide range of movies. They claim that Bigelow’s expertise lies in the fact that she refuses to be categorized. However, even so, this is true about Bigelow’s movies that they are mostly feminist, supporting the women strength. For instance, in the movie Blue Steel, released in 1989, the main character is a female. Played by James Lee Curtis, the character of Megan Turner is that of a rookie cop, who kills a criminal on her first night on duty. Things don’t go as smooth after that since she gets suspended by her superiors because of lack of evidence in her favor, and is accused of murder. Later in the movi e, when she gets her badge back for a spcial case, she bravely struggles, and at last successfully brings the criminal, her own ex-boyfriend, Eugene Hunt (Ron Silver) to justice, with a lot of hard work. In this film, Bigelow shows Megan as a very strong female, a very determinant police officer, reflecting Bigelow’s own feminist views. Megan’s character defies the ordinary and takes assertive decisions that go against the traditional view of femininity. Being a strong supporter of female independence, Bigelow’s personal views do indeed come out in the movie Blue Steel. This depiction of strong females and a reversal of gender roles is not merely a coincidence restricted to Blue Steel. Kathryn Bigelow’s latest movie, Zero Dark Thirty hit the box office in 2012. Turning out to be an amazing hit, the movie not only became very popular, but also served to reflect the Feminist views of its Producer/Director – Kathryn Bigelow, to a great extent. Zero Dark Thirty is a brilliantly directed fictionalized account about the search for Osama bin Laden, that started since the fateful attack of 9/11 on the World Trade Center in New York – an event that c hanged the lives of many. The movie revolves around the very same incident. Although the film is about three Central intelligence agency officers working together, the director Bigelow only shows one character very closely, who is Maya (Jessica Chastain), a female. Putting the female character in the lead role speaks of Bigelow’s determinacy to see women in a league apart and above that of men. In the film, Maya helps carry out cruel and violent interrogations of detainees – in a manner unlike that of a lady. She is a very strong and powerful character. According to Kathryn Bigelow’s own words, â€Å"the Film is obviously about a woman†. These words were spoken in a speech that has been hailed by critics as one of an overtly feminist view,

Case study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 3

Case Study Example Businesses such as Easy car, Easy cafà ©, Easyvalue.com etc. besides the airline business Easy jet are examples of the above mentioned growth strategy. Similarly, the group has also adopted effective pricing strategies to attract its existing customers towards its current products. In addition, the group has also made necessary innovations in its existing products to improve the quality as well as has developed new products to reap higher profits and observe growth in its businesses. Conglomerate refers to a group of companies acquired or owned by a business group, a person or an organization. Easy group is quite truly a genuine conglomerate because it owns several businesses such as Easy internet cafà ©, Easy car, Easy jet, online and hotel ventures and has now plans to add new ones such as Easy cinema in the group’s business portfolio to increase annual revenues of the group. Yes, I would recommend Easy Group to enter in Cinema industry and apply its effective business model. Also, easy group has ability to compete in tough market conditions and has been successful in its past ventures. Thirdly, easy group has a solid business plan with very few weak points for its cinema Case study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 24 Case Study Example The other issue seeks to implore on whether there is life beyond Earth, and lastly, the program seeks to understand the future of life on Earth. Astrobiology is the common denominator in all NASA space science activities. It bridges research in astrophysics, heliophysics and earth science. To further understand the principle interests of astrobiology, this discourse will look at the discipline in line with the three established issues. This is in recognition of the fact that the credibility and relevance of astrobiology lies in its pursuit to answer the fundamental questions of our origin, establishing our identity, and whether man is alone in the cosmos. Scientists seem to still not come up with a clear definition of what life is; they are still not clear on what being alive means. In perhaps the simplest way, life on Earth swaps energy and material with the environment. The common characteristics of life being that life forms grow, excrete, reproduce and are made up of genes stored in DNA and RNA structures and passed on to the next generation. Life also changes. These changes result due to alterations in the environment. However, life also alters the environment. Finally, it is clear that life is based on the chemistry of carbon and needs liquid water. An extremely constrained layer exists near the surface of Earth; this layer contains life in abundance as evidenced by microorganisms, plants, and animals. Unfortunately, this layer represents the only identified area that supports life in the entire Universe. Everyone by now acknowledges that the laws and concepts of chemistry and physics are in action all over the cosmos. This has led to constant enquiries on whether there is anything like general biology. More critically, there have been unending inquiries on life beyond Earth. Advanced science has been able to reveal that there exist other surfaces beyond Earth which are represented by planets orbiting the Sun. In the past 15